CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Reading
1.
Definition
of Reading
Reading is one of the four language skills besides
listening, speaking, and writing. Among them, reading has been decided as the
first main goal in language problem. Yet, the four-language skills are closely
one another. The definition of reading depends on the theory employed.
Principally the definitions of reading are the same. Reading does not mean just
looking at words but also more than an interaction between a reader and a text.
Concerning the definition of reading, there are many kinds
of ideas. Many linguists view reading as a process. Hornby (1995: 1037) states
that the word “reading” as a noun comes from the word “to read” (infinitive verb with to). To read means
to look for and to be able to understand something written or printed.
Kustaryo (1988: 2) states that reading is the meaningful interpretation of
printed or written symbols. He also states that combination of words
recognition; intellect and emotion interrelated with prior knowledge in order
to understand the message communicated. (from internet on http://www .mahdum. yolasite.com/ resources/Reading.pdf)
accessed on Friday 14 October
2011). Frederick
Cline (July,
2006) stated: “Reading
is decoding and understanding written text. Decoding requires translating the symbols of writing
systems (including braille) into the spoken words they represent. Understanding
is determined by the purposes for reading, the context, the nature of the text, and the readers’
strategies and knowledge.”
From internet (http://www.narap.info/
publications/ reports /focusgroup
reading.pdf /) accessed
on Friday, 14 october 2011. Nuttal in Nurlela BR Ginting (2007: 6-7) defines reading as the meaningful interpretation of
printed or written verbal symbols. It means that reading is a result of
interaction between the perception of graphic symbols that represent language
and the reader’s language skills, cognitive skills, and the knowledge of the
world. In this process, the reader tries to create meanings intended by writer.
From internet (http://www.mahdum. yolasite.com/ .pdf/) accessed
on Friday 14 October 2011).
From the definitions of reading above,
the writer as a teacher in this research can describe that reading process
happens when a text writer has messages in his/her mind,
and he/she wants to share them with the readers. Then the text writer writes his/her
messages in a text and communication happens when a reader understands what the
text writer means through his/her written text.
The reason of the readers for reading will
influence their skills of reading, but those skills are not determined
by the text but by the readers’ reasons for reading. The skills of reading are: scanning, that is looking through a text
for a particular piece of information; intensive reading, that is reading
carefully and slowly perhaps checking back from time to time to know
completely; skimming, that is going through the text fairly rapidly for the
‘gist’; and the last is extensive reading, that is relatively rapid of a long
text. The effective reader is one who is able to adapt his style to his purpose
and does to read everything slowly and intensively.
2.
Definition
of Reading Comprehension
After mentioning the theories about reading, the writer
wants to discuss about the definition of reading comprehension. There are a lot
of reading comprehension definitions, and one of them is proposed by Finochiaro in Arif Sumbodo (2010:
7). He
said that reading comprehension means understanding information from it as
effeciently as possible. There are some steps of reading comprehension such as
prior knowledge, reading text, comprehension tasks and language exercise. The
first step is prior knowledge which consists of activities aimed to activate
the prior knowledge of the students through two methods. Those two methodes are
vocabulary preview: the students will try to
elicit the meaning of some
difficult words before they read the text. The second method is anticipation of
context: the students will be given time to anticipate the content of the text
based on a given direction. The second step is reading text which consists of a
reading passage, which is needed to be read. The third step is comprehension tasks which consist
of three main activities, namely literal level (there are a number of
statements which can be found in the text), interpretive level (there are a
number of statements, each of them must be an implicit conclusion of the text),
and the last level is applied level (there are also some statements, each of
them must be an appropriate generalization of the text). The fourth step is language exercise focuses on the reviewing the linguistic device from the text in
order to reinforce the students’ comprehension ability.
From those discriptions, the writer concludes that
reading comprehension is defined as an ability to comprehend the message
from printed or written materials.
3.
The
Components of Reading Comprehension
Before going on to further
explanation about reading comprehension, the most important thing that needs to
be considered is the components of reading itself. According to Donald, et. all
(1987: 31-38), there are six mayor components of reading comprehension, they
are: decoding knowledge, vocabulary knowlede, syntactic knowledge, discourse
knowledge, readiness aspect and effective aspect. The six components explaned
as the following:
a.
Decoding
Knowledge
Decoding knowledge is used to determine the oral
equivalent of a written word. It is important for comprehension when determining the oral
equivalent of a word to help a reader.
Decoding is the ability to apply the knowledge of
letter-sound relationships, including knowledge of letter patterns to correctly
pronounce written words. Understanding these relationships gives students the
ability to recognize familiar words quickly and to figure out words they
haven't seen before. Although students may sometimes figure out some of these
relationships on their own, most children benefit from explicit instruction in
this area.
b.
Vocabulary
Knowledge
The knowledge is
what one has about word meaning
used to ditermine the the appropriate for a word in a particular context.
Vocabulary knowledge is important at all grade levels, but it
is particularly important aspect of reading instruction as develop and explore
less familiar subjects offers with some what specialized vocabularies.
c.
Syntactic
Knowledge
Knowledge of the word order rules determines
grammatical function and sometimes the meaning and pronounciation of word.
Syntactical knowledge includes understanding word order rules that exist in the sentences.
d.
Discourse
Knowledge
Knowledge of language organization at units beyond the
single sentence level includes knowledge of the structure organization of
different type of writing.
e.
Readiness
Aspect
Refering to the different concept, traditionally, reading
readiness is the ability of the student to benefit from initial reading
instruction. Reading readiness, therefore, may describe instruction designed to
assist both preferred and children who have already know how to read,
traditional readiness skill are important instruction during kindergarten and
beginning of the first grade: recently, reading readiness has wider definition,
it includes reading to read and understand a particular selection.
f.
Effectiveness
Aspect
Reading comprehension includes both interest and attitude,
increases
motivation and facilitates reading comprehension. Thus, to facilitate comprehension always
makes
reading and reading instruction as interesting and enjoyable as possible.
Affective aspects are important to consider at age and grade level (Donald, et.
all. 1987: 54).
Based on the
description above, there are six components of reading that must be achieved by
the students, so that the students can be categorized as a comprehensive
students
in reading.
4.
The
Aim of Reading
The main aim of reading is to catch the idea or
information in paragraph or text like what has been stated before. Some of
other reading aims are: First is reading for details or facts, that is reading
to get detail information or fact, for example we want to know some new invest
in medical, health, etc. Second is reading for main idea, that is to know the
reasons of some activities, idea of human being. Third is reading for squence
or organization, that is we read it to know what happen in each part of
stories, action, etc. Fourth is reading for inference, that is to find out the
conclusion from the action of the idea in the text. Fifth is reading to
classify, that is reading to classify some information of action of the writer
in the text or paragraph. Sixth is reading to evaluate, that is to evaluate the
writer has done or what he tries to explain or contrast. Seventh is reading to
compare or contrast, that is the reader compares the plot of story or contents,
whether having similarity with himself or contrast. Tarigan (1984: 8) states
that reading is complex activity because it depends on the student ability in
using a language and their intelectual activity.
5.
Reading
Technique
There are some different thoughts in the readers’ mind
when they read a text. It happens because the readers might not passively
receive the message and they must actively get the meaning. Hornby (1980: 887)
defines technique as “method of doing something expertly and well.” In relation
to reading technique is the method/ability to read the text expertly and well.
Krashen, S. D and Terrel in Nurela BR Ginting (2007: 8-9)
distinguish at least four types of reading tehniques/skills. They are scanning,
skimming, extensive reading, and intensive reading. The description of four techniques
is as follows:
a.
scanning is making a quick overview of a passage, looking
for specific
information,
b.
skimming uses the same approach, except that instead of
concentrating
on
specific information, reader are looking for the main idea or the
general gist of a passage,
c.
extensive reading, i.e. rapid reading for main ideas of a
large amount of text (books, long articles, or essay, etc.). Most extensive
reading is performed outside a classroom. Technical, scientific, and personal
reading can be extensive when is simply striving for global or general meaning
from longer passages, their tendency to understand the world they have not
understood and read for understanding/comprehending.
d.
intensive reading is reading for complete comprehending/ understanding
of an entire text. Intensive reading calls the students’ attention to
grammatical forms, discourse makers, and other surface structure details for
the purpose of understanding literal meanings, implications, rethorical
relationship and the like.
To have the reading skills as described above, therefore
the teacher will activate the students activities in reading class, especially in
comprehending the text throuh discussion technique. In this research, the
writer as a teacher activates the students in eight main activities to help
them in comprehending the texts. The students’ activeness in eight main
activities to comprehend the text through discussion technique is as follows:
a) active in opening the dictionary to find the meaning of
new words found in the text in discussion,
b) active
in comprehending every phrase, sentence and paragraph in discussion,
c)
active
in focussing or concentrating his/her mind to comprehend the text
in discussion,
d) active
in finding difficulties in the text in discussion,
e) active in responding both questions and opinions from others
in discussion,
f) active
in finding the right answers in answering the reading questions through discussion,
g) active in holding up his/her hands to represent his/her
group in
answering
the reading questions,
h) active
in doing the instruction and tasks given by the teacher through discussion.
In this
resesearch, the writer as the English teacher in learning and teaching process
has
an agreement with collaborators to improve the students’ activeness in reading
comprehension through discussion technique by activating the students in the
eight main activities above.
6.
The
Importance of Reading
Reading is very important in a study and society, because
there are many books, references, and instruction, which are written in
English. So students who have lack of reading skill will have difficulty to
understand all references, book etc that are written in English.
“Reading plays
a very important role in our
life. Through reading we can explore places or countries that have never been
visited before, and minds or ideas of great people in the past. By reading,
people can enrich their experience and knowledge and broaden their horizon. For
the students, reading is something crucial and indispensable since the success of their study depends
on their activeness and ability to read. If their reading is poor, they are
very lively to fail in their study or at least they will have difficulty in making progress. On the other hand, if their
reading is good, they will have a better chance to succeed in their study.”
Reading is the
main skill to reach a successful study. Students who only
confine in what their teacher gives in the class without having an
effort to read much reference will not pass and succeed in time
Widyanto (1995: 62) says that there are five points in
the importance of reading as way to successful study. The
first, reading is the most learning resource. The second, reading is the
cheapest learning resource. The third, reading is the easiest learning
resource. The fourth, reading is speed learning resource and the last, be up to
date to reading comprehension.
As the study which gives English lesson, reading is very
important to English as a target language to build vocabulary. It is realized
that reading skill or reading activity will open knowledge widely and give
more vocabularies and more information.
7.
Reading
in Language Learning
The aim of the teaching English is to develop the four
language skills. They are reading, listening, speaking, and writing. The
English teaching learning integrates the four language skills and its
emphasizes on the reading skill. There are two different approaches in teaching
reading; they are reading for language and reading for purpose. In the first
approach the passage is to provide practice in learning certain aspect of
language, for example to learn certain items of grammar. The real reason for
reading in this view is to learn language. In the second approach, the focus is
on reading for purpose. The purpose of reading here are reading for information
and reading for interest and pleasure. That’s why in reading comprehension the
students must be always active and spiritful in order to succeed in their study.
B.
Discussion
1.
Definition of
Discussion
In
human being’s life, people sometimes
face a difficult problem that they
can not overcome with one answer or one day only. It is why they conduct a discussion to find
out the best solution. Every teacher has to find out the way to overcome the
problem in order that the teaching learning process runs well. The problem
doesn’t come from the students and the teacher only, but it also comes from all
factors that support or hamper the teaching learning process, such as the class
situation, time of learning, teaching tools, and teaching material. Tarmuji et.
al. (1982: 70, cited
in Yudi Triono 2001: 13) stated that discussion is the scientific deliberation
which contains ideas exchange carried out by several persons who gather in the
group to find the truth.
According
to Hasibuan and Moedjiono in
Arif Sumbodo (2010: 15), discussion is a process of two or
more persons who interacted in verbally about a certain purposes or target by
changing the information, defend the ideas, or problem solving. They also state
that the discussion technique is more suitable and needed if the teacher wants
to.
First, exploiting the various capacities
of the students. Second giving
chance for the students to channel their capacity. Third getting feedback from the
students
whether the teaching learning succeeds or not. Fourth helping the students for
critical thinking. Fifth helping
the students to learn their capacity or participation in the learning process.
Sixth helping
the students in order that they can formulate the various problems, whether the
problems come from their experience or their school lesson.
The
discussion technique is the way to present the teaching materials in which the
teacher gives chance to the students or the group for a scientific discussion in order to collect an
oppinion, take a conclusion or arrange the various alternatives to solve a
problem.
Discussion can be applied to students,
because it helps the students become more confident and fluent communicators
and it makes the students aware of certain communication strategies. Another
definition is given by Semiawan at. all.in Arif Sembodo (2010: 16) that discussion is
the way to present the teaching material through opinions exchange to solve the
problem. This technique also called conference technique includes the activity
to develop ideas change between teacher and students and also students to other
students.
2. The
Characteristic of Discussion
There
are some characteristics
of discussion. According to Zuwariyah in Arif Sembodo (2010: 16), there are four
characteristics
of it. First, discussion is a social activity where several people react to
each other. Second, discussion is also a corporate ending without winner or
loser unlike the argument or debate, which trick on competition. Third, unlike
the free conversation among friend, reason and purpose and focus on an agreed
upon-topic can distinguish the discussion. Participants are required to think
reflectively and to weigh argument. Fourth, discussion is creative. It is through the participant
asking, responding, and reacting to question so that, remarks are shaped and
the discussion is created.
Based
on descriptions
above, the main characteristic of discussion is interaction between two or more
persons. Through this kind of discussion, the students will be able to solve
the problem that are faced by them.
3. The
Aim of Discussion
When
we have been discussing something, we can exchange the idea, opinion, and
experience. More than that, discussion gives an extra point to the students who
participate actively.
Discussion may happen in formal and
informal situation, and both are parts of the teaching learning process. The
good discussion does not come from the teacher’s role only but it is more
appropriate if it comes from the students. So, the argument and debate can
carry out transparently and in free atmosphere. And this experience can develop
the students’ hobbies, interest, and creativity.
According to Hartono in Arif Sembodo (1991: 106),
there are some aims of discussion technique. The first aims, discussion is to involve
the students as a part of the component system. The second aims, discussion is
to stimulate and motivate the students. The third aims, discussion is to train
the students for critical thinking. The fourth aims, discussion is to develop
their team work ability.
The discussion not only helps teach
material, but it also develops the thinking process, promotes a positive
attitude toward learning, and develops interpersonal skils. Group discussions
foster interaction between students whose skill, attitudes, and interest
differ, and allow the students to use democratic leadership skills to lead the
direction of the discussion and participation. In this manner, discussion helps
the students extend their knowledge through higher-level independent throught.
4. The
Advantages and Disadvantages of Discussion
Discussion is very useful technique in
learning process. It has many advantages and disadvantages for the students.
According to Hartono in Arif
Sembodo (2010: 18-19), there are some advantages and
disadvantages of discussion technique written in table, these are:
Table 2.1
The Advantages and Disadvantages of
Discussion
|
Advantages
|
Disadvantages
|
|
1.
Share ideas and experiences from group
2.
Be able to improve the comprehen- sion of important problems
3.
Allow everyone to participate in an active process
4.
Evectively to convey the information
5.
Train the students for critical thinking
6.
Develop their team work ability
7.
Be able to foster or guide a spirit of cooperation
|
1.
Not practical with more than 20 students
2.
A few students can domi- nate
3.
Some students may not par- ticipate
4.
It is time consuming
5.
Can get of the track
6.
The members who are quiet, shy,
less aggressive often do not get a chance to talk
|
Discussion is one of the teaching
techniques used in communicative language teaching. Discussion is the most
easily communicative activity. It is not limited by a special topic, but all
topics that are considered it. Discussion is a very effective way to solve the
problem. Each person has different problems, not all people can solve the
problem that they face. So, discussion is a good technique to solve the problem
together.
C.
Teaching
Reading
Using Discussion Technique
Teaching reading using discussion
technique must rely on teaching
steps. The steps of using discussion technique for teaching reading below are
quoted from Hasibuan and Mudjiono
in Arif Sumbodo (2010: 19-20),
1.
The teacher proposes the problem/text to be
discussed and gives a necessary direction to the students how to solve the
problems.
2.
The teacher and the
students can determine the main problems together and the problem that will be
discussed have to be formulated clearly in order that students can get a good
comprehension.
3.
The students led by the
teacher make discussion groups, choose the discussion leader (leader,
secretary), arrange the seats, the place, etc.
Some criterias to
choose discussion leader are that. First, he should master the discussion
problem. Second, he should be “authoritative bearing” and his friends like him.
Third, he should speak fluently. Fourth, he should be distinct in taking
the measures, fair, and democratic.
4.
The students discuss an
issue/text in their group while the teacher walks around from one to another
group and takes care that each member has active participation. Each of members
has exactly known the discussion material and how to discuss. The discussion
has to run in the free situation and every member has the same right to speak.
5.
Then, each group has to
report their discussion result, and other groups gave reaction, protest, or
question.
6.
Finally, the students
make a note about the discussion result and the teacher collect the discussion
result from each group.
In this research, after the students finish in discussing reading texts,
and finish in answering the reading questions, the teacher
inquires or asks the reading
questions to each of groups which is represented by the leader of group or by one of his/her friend in his group.
After that the teacher asks or
inquires the group’s
answer to other group, whether the group’s answer which is the result of
discussion in his/her group right or not. If the other groups answer “No”
or the answer is wrong, so the teacher begs to the vice of one of groups who
answer “No” to answer it. The other questions
are treated in the same way.
In the last meeting of each Cycle, the teacher asks each student to make the
text like the model of the text given, that is in the Independent Construction
of the Text step. This case is also to know the students’ activeness
individually after the teacher implements the discussion technique.
D.
Activeness
1. Definition
of Activeness
Teaching and
learning process is not only a matter of transmitting knowledge but it is also
to do with the activeness of both the teachers and students. According to
Hornby (1994:
57), activeness is a trait of being active, moving or acting rapidly and energetically,
“the level of activity declines with ages”.
According to
Nana Sudjana (2000:
72) suggests that the students’ activeness in following the teaching-learning process
can be seen in:
a. taking part in a learning task.
b. involving
in problem solving.
c. asking
other students or the teacher if he or she does not understand the faced issues
or problems.
d. trying to
find a variety of information
needed to solve the problem.
e. conducting discussion in groups in accordance with
teacher’s guidance.
f. assess the ability of
her/himself and the results obtained.
(From
internet :
http://andrianifadly.wordpress.com/2012/01/13/keaktifan-belajar/) accessed on Saturday, 28 January 2012.
From the definitions above, the writer can conclude that activeness
is someone’s action being active to achieve a success. The activeness of
learning is an effort to study actively
to achieve the success in studying.
2. The
Activeness in Reading Comprehension
The
activeness in reading comprehension is an active effort to be able to
understand the messages of the written texts, in order to achieve the success
in reading. The teachers have to be responsible to make the students active in
class. To make the students active in the class the teacher must have some keys
to succeed the learning for the students.
There are some keys to make the students
active in class. First, teacher must be creative, invent new stategies and
adapt existing one to our needs. Second, teacher develops a plan for an active
learning activity in class, try it out, collect feed back, then modify and try
it again. Third, start from the first day of class with it. Students will come to expect
active learning and perform better. Forth, be explicit with students about why we are doing this and
what we
know about learning process. Fifth, request students vary their seating
arrangements to increase their changes to work with different people. Have
students occasionally pair up the students behind them, since friends often sit
side by side.
Hopefully, through those activities, students can improve
their activeness in teaching and
learning process, particularly in reading comprehension.
So that, class environment will be
better and more attractive.
E.
Basic
Assumption
Discussion technique is one way that can
simulate students’ activeness and cooperation
in reading activity in
class, especially in comprehending
the English texts. By conducting discussion
technique, the students can
share their experiences or opinions with their friends in their group. They can
give experience, input, information, message or opinion one another which they don’t know before.
Hopefully through applying discussion
technique in teaching reading, the students’ activeness to comprehend the texts will improve, so the the problems
faced by the teacher in reading activities can be solved.
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